-isms!! -isms!! More -isms!!

Conservatism: The political theater of post-Vienna Europe was dominated by a longing for the way things used to be. Edmund Burke, considered "The Father of Conservatism," observed reasons why a restoration of monarchy, a central role of religion, a balance of power throughout Europe, and the prevention of revolution was the ideal way to run a country. How did Burke view the French Revolution on a whole, despite not being French himself?

 

The man seen above, Klemens von Metternich, made sure the idea of conservatism continued after Burke. As he orchestrated the peace at Vienna following the Napoleonic Wars, Metternich made sure the European powers followed such guidelines as balance of power and monarchy being the government of choice. The Congress of Vienna is given credit for preventing a continental war in Europe for 100 years, until World War I.

Liberalism: Considered the antithesis of conservatism, liberalism, as its root implies. believes in freedoms. What are some of the freedoms discussed by one of the more famous liberals, John Stuart Mill, in On Liberty? Freedom of opinion? Openness in political conversation and debate? Support of checks and balances? Liberals did not support monarchies; rather, they supported checks and balances and a greater say for the people.

Economically, the liberals were followers in capitalism and the ideas put forth by Adam Smith in Wealth of Nations. Liberals believed in a laissez-faire economy, with no regulations upon trade and commerce put forth by the government. Whereas conservatives sought a return to mercantilism and government intervention, liberals sought the opposite. Oh my, how times have changed!

Struggles: Of course, what did differences between political philosophies bring? Combined with popular economic struggle, the people wanting more freedoms, and the government wanting more control -- revolutions ran rampant. Greece fought for independence from the Ottoman Empire during the 1820s; Russia went through the Decembrist Revolt in 1825; Belgium broke away from The Netherlands in 1830; France saw revolution in July, 1830.

1830 was the opening act for violence around Europe. The climax occurred during 1848. The call for more freedom had increased in places, such as the Italian States, Prussia and other German states, the Austrian Empire, Denmark, Wallachia, Grand Duchy of Poland, and Belgium. That is quite the list of places! The result of these conflicts were more constitutional monarchies where the people landowning men would have a voice, at least a vote, in politics. Of course, this was quickly corrupted by strong-willed leaders, i.e. Louis Napoleon in France.

Nationalism and Unification: A greater sense of national pride permeates the 19th century, particularly on the continent. It is from around 1820 until 1861, beginning with the Young Italians, continuing with the efforts of Count Cavour in the Piedmont and Garibaldi in the South with his "Redshirts," and ending with the actual unification in 1861, that Italy had worked to become a united peninsula. What two entities had been blocking this unification? Why was this the case?

It is during the 1860s that the Austrian Empire recognizes the Hungarians within their borders and becomes the Kingdom of Austria-Hungary. Hungary gets their own capital in Budapest and their own legislature, but Francis Joseph I is still in control with one army and a single currency. Did this satisfy or answer the problems Austria had been facing with ethnic tensions? Why or why not?

The most important unification, at least for the purpose of testing in this class, is that of Germany. When did the unification of Germany occur? 1871, or following the defeat of the French in the Franco-Prussian War. Remember, following the defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, Napoleon III is removed from power and Germany unifies. A central figure in unification for Germany is seen above wearing the Piceklhaube (pointed helmet) -- Otto von Bismarck. Bismarck was nicknamed "The Iron Chancellor," and was interested in building Germany on "Blood and Iron." He was the Chancellor of Prussia and later Chancellor of Germany during the reign of Kaiser William I (a.k.a. Wilhelm I). Under their leadership, Germany would dominate the continent as an industrial power and rival Britain and the United States for global supremacy.

Romanticism v. Neoclassicism: The two dominant artistic movements of the early nineteenth century were bitter rivals in France. The Romantics believed man could not control nature, as had been discussed during the Enlightenment. Nature was a dominant force that could not be contained. Both Gericault and Turner show the power of the sea in the form of shipwrecks. First, Gericault in The Raft of the Medusa:

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And now, second, Joseph Turner and his Shipwreck of the Minotaur:

Paintings of intense national pride, such as Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People, would also be considered romantic art. Romanticism was also present in music and literature. Music was put forward for a larger audience with a greater range of instruments in the works of Beethoven and Lizst. Wagner brought German folk lore to the stage and added music with powerful opera. Tchaikovsky, in Russian music, commemorated the defeat of Napoleon with his 1812 Overture, but also wrote for the public in the form of ballet, Nutcracker Suite and Swan Lake. In literature, the Bronte sisters were romantic romantics in Wuthering Heights and Jane Eyre; William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and William Blake would be considered the foremost romantic poets, not named Lord Byron.

On the other side of the spectrum are the neoclassicists. The pinnacle figure in painting in neoclassicism is the painter of the French Revolution and of Napoleon, David. The neoclassicists believed in replicating antiquity and the High Renaissance. Their goal was perfection; it was a craft that could be taught in academies by copying and using models. Raphael was one of the foremost authorities. Artists, such as Ingres (see Napoleon at beginning of this section), traveled to Rome to see the ruins of Roman architecture. The paintings also have classical or mythological scenes, such as David's Death of Socrates