17th Century and Scientific Revolution

What is a revolution? This was the topic of a great deal of discussion in class. The scientific definition is one time around in a circle; however, there was much mention of words, such as change, upheaval, and improvement, which also come to define the word "revolution." With regards to the Scientific Revolution, there is a challenge to the status quo of knowledge, particularly in medicine, astronomy, physics, and mathematics. The "Father of the Heliocentric Universe" is discussed in great deal in this attached article -- you might want to know who he is! Copernicus Reburied The movement of the solar system and the present model was put forth by Johannes Kepler, who used the observations of Tycho Brahe to draw his conclusions. We also examined scientists of the human body: Vesalius, Paracelsus, and William Harvey. I, for one, am glad that we no longer practice Galenic medicine. Could you imagine those diagnoses?
 

The discussion of the 17th century is twofold. First, the Thirty Years' War, the evolution of warfare, and the change of European wars over religion to wars over territory. This conflict is ended by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The second discussion paramount to the 17th century is the rule of the monarch by divine right, the concept of absolutism. With this political system of a single sovereign ruler came an economic system focusing on domestic production and exploitation of colonial resources; this system was mercantilism. The seminal figure in this discussion is the French monarch, Louis XIV.

In England, divine right Stuart monarchs came into conflict with Parliament. What was the result? Initially, a not-so-nice English Civil War; eventually, an executed monarch and a military dictatorship under Oliver Cromwell. Following Cromwell's death, the Stuarts return, only to be pushed out over religion again. Catholic Stuart, James II, gets married a second time to a Catholic and has a son, who would be the Catholic heir to the English throne. Parliament would not tolerate this development; thus, an invitation is sent out to William of Orange and his wife, Mary (Protestant daughter of James II from first marriage) to rule England if they agreed to a contract, the English  Bill of Rights. Is this enough for you to digest?

Exploration

Three words can describe the goals of the European explores and conquerors. The words are God, Glory, and Gold. God describes the process of spreading Christianity, particularly Catholicism, to the natives they came across with "pagan" practices. Glory defines the respect and admiration that comes with sailing for an empire and the expansion of that empire's boundaries for the king and queen. Gold captures all the riches from exploration east and west.

In the discussions of exploration, the emphasis was placed on encounters. With whom were these encounters? The Portuguese sailed around Africa first, establishing trading posts along the continent's coast. Vasco da Gama became the first European to complete the sea route to India for trading purposes. The Spanish, led by Columbus and Balboa, sailed west across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas. Upon their arrival, what did they do? The primary sources are a great help to answering these questions. Columbus was intent on organizing in his new colonies such that it was easier to govern and then collect and ship gold back to Spain. For more information, you can check out a historian's dedicated page to Christopher Columbus, at this site.

The conquistadors of the Aztecs and the Incas must also be known for this course. There are two conquistadors that must be known -- Hernan Cortes and Francisco Pizzarro. There is a PBS montage on various Spanish conquistadors, which you may find helpful to your studies -- More on the Aztecs. How does the interaction of Cortes compare to the interaction of the missionary, Francis Xavier, in Asia? What do the sources say about their interactions?

When looking at the encounters between Asia and Europe, we looked at Ming China, Tokugawa Japan, Mughal India, and Safavid Persia. What are the three Gunpowder Empires? We discussed the Ming having the ability to sail to Europe, but the expeditions of Cheng Ho (Zheng He) were stopped by the emperor because of funding, and he only made it as far as Mogadishu in present-day Somalia. We also emphasized the Japanese closing-up shop in the issuing of their Closed Country Edicts during the reign of the Tokugawa Shogunate. The shogun was the big power in the Japanese social structure. The Japanese knights in this daimyo system were samurai, armed with swords and bound by a code of conduct called bushido. With regards to India, we saw religious conflict between Muslims and Hindus. Additionally, there was gradual expansion southward; however, their power was still limited. Why was this the case? Their power was greatly reduced and threatened by the presence of Europeans in most of the coastal regions. The Europeans had arrived for trade; the Mughal Empire had no naval forces and were therefore vulnerable. Bad combination for the Mughal Empire!

Happy Studying! 

Reformation or Re-Formation

In the discussion of the Reformation, we begged the question reform or re-form? It really depends. Are we talking about the Catholic Church improving itself or the Protestant churches that were formed during the sixteenth century? Why were these churches formed? They are called Protestant for a reason; however, it must be determined what they were protesting.  The hypocrisy and absolute authority of the papacy must be included in any list. This is especially true when discussing the formation of the Anglican Church and the quarrel between Henry VIII and Clement VII. Of course, the religious scene in England changes repeatedly during the Tudor Dynasty, something that may be of interest to those wanting to pass the class -- ahem!.

The Church was not necessarily a holy place; however, it did attempt to change. The Council of Trent was almost 20 years in length and served as a reaffirmation of Catholic beliefs during the early modern period. The Catholic Reformation also saw the strengthening of some religious orders and the formation of others, most importantly, the Jesuits -- ahem!

As I promised, attached is the BBC article regarding the head of King Henry IV (of Navarre) in France. He was the Huguenot turned Catholic turned Huguenot turned Catholic king who issued the Edict of Nantes for religious toleration. "Head" This Way

One last thing, not discussed in class. The art scene that develops around Europe during the sixteenth century out of the Renaissance genre is Mannerism. Usually paintings that are considered mannerist contain elongated forms, precariously balanced poses, a collapsed perspective, irrational settings, and theatrical lighting. In other words, it was a blatant perversion of the balance and harmony struck in Renaissance artwork, which copied off the classics. Michelangelo's later works are generally considered mannerist works.

What to know: Changes of English Religion, Martin Luther, Calvin & Predestination, Jesuits, Reasons for the successes of Protestant movements   

The Renaissance Rundown

As discussed in class, the Renaissance can be summed up neatly as the last time when Greco-Roman antiquity and Judeo-Christian religion fuse together. The result? A vibrant intellectual and artistic Italian Peninsula (remember, Italy is not unified as a single country until 1861) that brought forth an Italian language, the Petrarchan sonnet, one of the key writings in the study of political science, and masterpieces of art.

  

In class, we briefly discussed Brunelleschi's dome. To the left is the dome of St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican, which was created by Michelangelo. To the right is the dome of the United States Capitol Building in Washington, D.C. Are there similarities? Differences?

Need to know from the Renaissance: Three Crowns of Florence, Humanism, Machiavelli, Medici Family

What is to come? Lorenzo's letter to his son becoming a cardinal gives a taste of what is to come. The lavish nature of the College of Cardinals in Rome was disgusting and there was a call for change. The changes that occur in Western Christendom will become known as the Reformation.